‘Hol Hamoed Sukkot (חול המועד סוכות – Intermediate Days of Sukkot) Exodus 33:12–34:26 • Numbers 29:26–31 • Ezekiel 38:18–39:16
Moses asks to know the ways of the Eternal. God reveals His attributes of mercy and renews the covenant. Then, the festivals are recalled, especially Sukkot. The Maftir details the specific offerings for the day of the festival. In the Haftarah, Ezekiel prophesies an apocalyptic war led by Gog against Israel, followed by a return to peace and universal recognition of God.
Ezekiel 38:18 (pdf 492/575) וְהָיָה בַּיּוֹם הַהוּא בְּיוֹם בּוֹא גוֹג עַל אַדְמַת יִשְׂרָאֵל And it shall come to pass on that day, the day when Gog comes against the land of Israel.
The Codex Cairensis, or Codex Prophetarum Cairensis, is a 9th-century Hebrew manuscript containing all the books of the Prophets in their entirety. It was copied in 895 by Moses ben Asher[1], a central figure in the Masoretic tradition[2] of Tiberias. This manuscript is written on parchment, with meticulous calligraphy and Masoretic annotations. Preserved for over a millennium by the Karaite community of Cairo, it was transferred in 2023 to the National Library of Israel in Jerusalem, housed in a contemporary building designed by the Swiss firm Herzog & de Meuron, located between the Israel Museum and the Knesset.
Ezekiel 38:18–39:16
[1] Moses ben Asher is the patriarch of the Ben Asher lineage, Masoretes of Tiberias. He is recognized as the author of the Codex Cairensis and father of Aharon ben Moshe ben Asher, who would later establish the Aleppo Codex. [2] The Masoretes (בעלי המסורה, ba’alei hamassora) are the guardians of the textual tradition of the Hebrew Bible. Between the 6th and 10th centuries, they established the vocalization, accentuation, and punctuation of the biblical text. Their meticulous work included counting letters, noting variants, and faithfully transmitting the text.
The Torah describes the ritual performed by the High Priest in the sanctuary: entering the Holy of Holies, sending the scapegoat into the wilderness, and sprinkling blood to atone for the people’s sins. In the second Sefer, it details the specific sacrifices of the day. In the afternoon, the reading recalls the laws of holiness. In the morning haftarah, the prophet Isaiah urges repentance (teshuva) and the pursuit of justice. The afternoon haftarah recounts Jonah’s flight and the repentance of the great city of Nineveh.
Jonah 2:1 וַיְמַן ה׳ דָּג גָּדוֹל לִבְלֹעַ אֶת-יוֹנָה The Eternal sent a great fish to swallow Jonah.
Located 12.5 km north of Tiberias, Huqoq (חוקוק) is mentioned in the Book of Joshua[1]. Inhabited since the Bronze Age (3300 BCE – 1200 BCE), the village flourished during the Roman (1st–3rd century) and Byzantine (4th–7th century) periods.
Since 2011, excavations led by Jodi Magness[2] have uncovered a monumental 5th-century synagogue built of basalt, a rock typical of the region’s geological landscape.
Its mosaic floor is exceptional for its artistic richness and diversity of scenes. The depiction of Jonah is particularly remarkable. Rare in ancient Jewish art, it shows Jonah at the critical moment of being swallowed by the fish. Other mosaics are also extraordinary: Samson in Gaza carrying the city gates after tearing them out, the crossing of the Red Sea, the spies, Noah’s ark, and a non-biblical scene interpreted as a meeting between Alexander the Great and a Jewish priest.
The walls were painted in red, pink, and white, and the columns bore traces of colored plaster.
Coins, rock-cut tombs, and ancillary structures testify to a thriving community.
[1] In the description of the border of the territory of Naftali (Joshua 19:32–39), verse 34 mentions Huqoq. Naftali means “my struggle.” Jacob blessed him saying: “Naftali is a doe let loose; he utters beautiful words” (Genesis 49:21). [2] Jodi Magness is a professor of archaeology at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. She has led the Houqoq excavations since 2011 with an international team. The discoveries have been published in several scientific journals and featured in media outlets such as National Geographic.
Vayelekh (וַיֵּלֶךְ – He went) Deuteronomy 31:1–30 • Hosea 14:2–10, Joel 2:11–27, Micah 7:18–20
Moses announces his departure and entrusts Joshua with the responsibility of leading the people. He gives Israel a song — the song of the Torah. He commands them to write and transmit it. The haftarah of Shabbat Shuvah urges Israel toward teshuvah, a sincere return to the Eternal.
Hosea 14:2 שׁוּבָה יִשְׂרָאֵל עַד ה׳ אֱלֹהֵיךָ Return, Israel, to the Eternal your God
In the 1920s–1930s, Captain Artur Carlos de Barros Basto[1] founded the Jewish Community of Porto and launched a campaign to reconnect the descendants of crypto-Jews[2] with Judaism. Despite his expulsion from the army in 1937, the Kadoorie Mekor Haim Synagogue (מקור חיים – Source of Life) was inaugurated in 1938, thanks to the patronage of the Kadoorie family[3]. However, deprived of leadership for several decades, the synagogue remained silent. Renewal began in the early 2010s, driven by the arrival of new members and support from the rabbinate of Lisbon and Israel. Since 2014, the Jewish community of Porto has opened a rabbinical court, a Jewish museum (2015), a mikveh (2016), a Holocaust museum (2021), and a cemetery (2023). It has also engaged in film production with several historical films[4]. The community, which had barely forty members in 2010, now exceeds one thousand. Today, the Kadoorie Mekor Haim Synagogue[5] is the largest Jewish building in the Iberian Peninsula. Designed in Art Deco style, with a white façade reminiscent of Bauhaus, it was created by architect Augusto dos Santos Malta and engineer Arthur de Almeida Jr.
[1] Artur Carlos de Barros Basto (1887–1961) was a Portuguese officer, intellectual, and Jewish activist, nicknamed the “Portuguese Dreyfus” due to the antisemitic injustice he suffered. At the age of nine, he discovered that his ancestors were Jews forcibly converted to Christianity in the 16th century. A hero of the 1910 Republican Revolution and a decorated World War I veteran, he received the Portuguese War Cross for bravery. After studying Judaism, he converted and took the name Abraham Israel Ben-Rosh. In 1923, he founded the Jewish community of Porto, established the Rosh Pina Institute — the first yeshiva in Portugal in five centuries — and advocated for the return of crypto-Jews to Judaism. In 1937, Barros Basto was unjustly expelled from the Portuguese army for organizing circumcisions. His official rehabilitation was only recognized posthumously, in 2012, by the Assembly of the Republic of Portugal. [2] Conversos / Crypto-Jews: Conversos refers to Jews who converted to Christianity (often under duress); crypto-Jews emphasizes the secret practice of Judaism. The return of their descendants is carried out through halakhic conversions. [3]The name “Kadoorie” honors Sir Elly Kadoorie and his sons Lawrence and Horace, who financed the construction of the Porto synagogue in the 1930s. Descended from a Sephardic Jewish family originally from Baghdad, the Kadoories are known for their philanthropy and support of Jewish communities around the world. [4]The films were directed by Luís Ismael, whose real name is Luís Miguel da Rocha Ferreira, a Portuguese director, producer, actor, and entrepreneur known for his work in independent cinema. Founder of the production company Lightbox, one of the leading studios in northern Portugal, he collaborated with the Jewish community of Porto to produce several historical films: • Sefarad (2019): recounts the story of Artur Carlos de Barros Basto and the Jewish revival in Porto in the 20th century. • The Nun’s Kaddish (2019): a 7-minute short film about a Catholic nun who discovers she is Jewish, illustrating a spiritual meditation on the search for truth. • 1618 (2021): a historical drama about the Inquisition in Porto, now the most awarded Portuguese film to date. [5]The Kadoorie Mekor Haim Synagogue in Porto is the result of a project initiated in 1923 by Artur Carlos de Barros Basto and the Jewish community of Porto. The land was acquired in 1929, and construction began the same year. The building was completed in 1937 and officially inaugurated in 1938. Long closed to the public, it was reopened in 2012 and further enriched in 2015 with the installation of a Jewish museum within its walls.
Moshe gathers all of Israel to renew the covenant with the Eternal. This solemn moment emphasizes the unity of the people, as each individual is called to stand before God.
Rosh Hashanah (ראש השנה – Beginning of the Year) Yom Teru‘ah (יום תרועה – Day of Sounding) Genesis 21:1–34; 22:1–24 • Numbers 29:1–6 • 1 Samuel 1:1–2:10 • Jeremiah 31:1–19
On Rosh Hashanah, the biblical readings evoke the birth and binding of Yitzḥak, the prayer of Ḥannah, and the tears of Yirmiyahu. The sound of the shofar recalls the ram substituted for Yitzḥak, but also the cries of prayer and the calls for mercy. It embodies the breath of covenant and spiritual awakening.
Deuteronomy 29:9 אַתֶּם נִצָּבִים הַיּוֹם כֻּלְּכֶם, לִפְנֵי ה׳ אֱלֹהֵיכֶם You are all standing today before the Eternal, your God
Numbers 29:1 יוֹם תְּרוּעָה, יִהְיֶה לָכֶם. It shall be for you a day of sounding the shofar.
Shofarot Israel – Bar-Sheshet Ribak : The Bar-Sheshet family traces its lineage back to 14th-century Spain with Rabbi Yitzḥak Bar-Sheshet Barfat[¹]. According to family tradition, one of his descendants began working with horn to make utilitarian objects, eventually specializing in crafting shofars. After the expulsion of Jews from Spain in 1492, the Bar-Sheshet family settled in Morocco, where the craft of shofar-making was preserved for generations. In 1947, Meir Bar-Sheshet boarded the Exodus[²] en route to Eretz Israel, but the ship was turned away by British authorities, and Meir was interned in a camp in Germany. There, on the eve of Rosh Hashanah, he crafted his first shofar. In 1948, he succeeded in immigrating to Israel and, reconnecting with his ancestral craft, founded a workshop in Haifa.
On the Ribak side, the artisanal tradition begins in Włodawa, Poland, with Yaakov Rossman. Known for his expertise in hornwork, he gained recognition for the quality of his shofars. In 1927, he immigrated to Mandatory Palestine and settled in Tel Aviv, where he became the first artisan to craft shofars in the city. With no direct descendants, he passed his knowledge to his cousin Avraham Ribak, who continued the workshop and trained his son Eli Ribak.
In the 1980s, Eli Ribak and Tsvi Bar-Sheshet, son of Meir, founded Shofarot Israel – Bar-Sheshet Ribak, which is now recognized worldwide as a leading name in handcrafted shofars.
The shofars produced in this workshop are made from the horns[³] of kosher animals, such as ram, kudu, ibex, oryx, and eland. Each horn is softened by heat, hollowed, shaped, drilled at the mouthpiece, polished, and carefully finished by hand. Some models are silver-plated, painted, or engraved according to client preferences. The entire process is fully artisanal, using tools often designed by the craftsmen themselves, in strict accordance with the laws of kashrut and halakhic requirements.
[¹] Yitzḥak Bar-Sheshet Barfat (יצחק בר ששת ברפת), known by the acronym Ribash (ריב״ש), was born in 1326 in Valencia and died in 1408 in Algiers. He was one of the greatest halakhic authorities of his time, authoring hundreds of responsa and serving rabbinic roles in the communities of Barcelona, Zaragoza, and Algiers. He remains a major figure in medieval Sephardic Judaism, known for the rigor of his reasoning. [²] The President Warfield, an American steamship, was reassigned in 1947 by Mossad LeAliyah Bet to transport over 4,500 Holocaust survivors to Mandatory Palestine. Renamed Exodus 1947 at sea, it was intercepted by the British navy before reaching Haifa. Three passengers were killed, and the survivors were interned in camps in Germany. The incident sparked international outrage and contributed to growing support for the creation of the State of Israel. [³] Cow horn is not used to make a shofar, as it is referred to in the Torah by the term keren (קרן) rather than shofar (שופר). According to the Talmud (Rosh Hashanah 26a), this terminological distinction excludes it from ritual use. Additionally, some commentators associate it with the sin of the golden calf, reinforcing its unsuitability for sacred sounding on Rosh Hashanah.
Ki Tavo (כִּי-תָבוֹא – “When You Enter”) Readings: Deuteronomy 26:1–29:8 • Isaiah 60:1–22
The parashah opens with the law of the first fruits (bikkurim), which every farmer is to bring to the place chosen by God, accompanied by a declaration of gratitude. It then presents the law of the tithe (ma‘asser), designated for the Levites, orphans, widows, and foreigners.
The Torah is inscribed on stones at Mount Ebal, marking the covenant with God, and sacrifices are offered there. The Levites proclaim a series of warnings, to which the people respond “Amen.” Blessings for obedience are pronounced on Mount Gerizim, while curses for transgression are declared on Mount Ebal.
In the haftarah, the prophet Isaiah envisions a restored Jerusalem, radiant with divine light, drawing the nations toward her in a spirit of peace, gratitude, and spiritual awakening.
Isaiah 60:1 קוּמִי אוֹרִי כִּי בָא אוֹרֵךְ Arise, shine, for your light has come.
In 1947, in the Judean Desert near Qumran, a young shepherd accidentally discovers a cave hidden among the cliffs. Inside, ancient jars contain manuscripts over two thousand years old. These texts shed new light on our understanding of that era.
Among the treasures unearthed is a complete scroll of the Book of Isaiah (1QIsaᵃ), meticulously written on sewn sheets of leather. Measuring 7.34 meters in length, it contains all 66 chapters of the book, in a remarkably well-preserved state.
Dated to the 2nd century BCE, the manuscript has been restored with exceptional care, preserving both its structure and legibility. Today, it is housed in the Israel Museum, in the wing known as the Shrine of the Book, where it continues to enlighten scholars and visitors with its unique testimony.
Ki-Tetsé (כִּי-תֵצֵא – When you go out) Deuteronomy 21:10–25:19 & Isaiah 54:1–10
Ki-Tetsé contains 74 commandments, making it one of the most densely packed portions of the Torah in terms of legal instruction. These laws govern various aspects of Israel’s social, familial, and moral life. The parasha concludes with the commandment to remember what Amalek did—a call to vigilant memory in the face of hostility. The haftarah, drawn from the book of Isaiah, offers a consoling vision: Jerusalem, likened to a barren woman, is called to give birth to a multitude. The prophet reaffirms the eternal covenant between God and His people, and the unwavering divine compassion that endures beyond exile.
Deuteronomy 21:10 כִּי-תֵצֵא לַמִּלְחָמָה עַל-אֹיְבֶךָ When you go out to war against your enemies…
The Cantonist[1] Synagogue of Tomsk was built in 1906. It was confiscated by Soviet authorities in 1930 and converted into municipal housing. In 2013, it was finally returned to the local Jewish community. Inside, the original wooden paneling remains visible beneath a light whitewash. The restored Holy Ark is adorned with a curtain embroidered with the initials of Tzvi Hertz Yankelowitz, one of the founding cantonists of the synagogue. This solid wooden structure, a rare surviving example of Siberian Jewish religious architecture, underwent full restoration to become a museum of Judaism in Siberia. Today, it stands as one of the last preserved examples of this unique architectural style.
[1] The cantonists were Jewish boys forcibly conscripted into military schools of the Russian Empire beginning in 1827, under Tsar Nicholas I. An imperial decree required Jewish communities to provide a quota of children, often between the ages of 8 and 12, for military training. At age 18, these boys were drafted into the army for a term of 25 years. The system was abolished in 1857 under Tsar Alexander II.
Choftim (שופטים – Judges) Deuteronomy 16:18–21:9 and Isaiah 51:12–52:12
The parasha outlines the foundations of a society governed by justice: fair courts, prohibition of corruption, limits on royal power, the role of the prophet, laws of war, and collective responsibility. In the haftarah, read during the seven weeks of consolation following Tisha BeAv, the prophet Isaiah announces the end of exile, the awakening of Jerusalem, and the path toward redemption. The people are called to rise, purify themselves, and prepare for deliverance.
Deuteronomy 16:20 צֶדֶק צֶדֶק תִּרְדֹּף Justice, justice shall you pursue
Founded in 1863, Ohav Zedek (אהב צדק – One Who Loves Justice) is one of the oldest Jewish institutions in Wilkes-Barre, a working-class city in northeastern Pennsylvania. It was established by immigrants from Central Europe, particularly Austria and Hungary. In 1892, the community was officially registered under the name Congregation Ohav Zedek Anshe Ungarn[1].
The current building[2], constructed in 1932 according to the plans of architect Austin Reilly[3], adopts a Moorish style, with a façade adorned with colorful tiles. The interior features a rare architectural detail: the women’s gallery is suspended from the upper structure, avoiding columns that would obstruct the view — a notable innovation. The construction was overseen by contractor William Schmalzriedt[4].
[1] Congregation One Who Loves Justice – The Men of Hungary: “Congregation” is a common term in American synagogue names; Ohav Zedek (אהב צדק) is Hebrew for “One Who Loves Justice”; Anshe Ungarn (אַנשֵי אוּנְגַארְן) is Yiddish for “The Men of Hungary.” [2] Ohav Zedek synagogue can be explored online through the Synagogues360 project, which visually documents Jewish houses of worship around the world. Direct link [3] Austin Reilly: An architect active in northeastern Pennsylvania during the 1920s–1930s, Reilly designed several public and religious buildings in Luzerne County. His style blends Moorish influences with modern functionality. He is listed as the principal architect of the 1932 building in Wilkes-Barre municipal archives. [4] William Karl Schmalzriedt (1911–2001): A building contractor based in Wilkes-Barre, Schmalzriedt oversaw the construction of Ohav Zedek in 1932. He is cited in project records and community archives as the lead builder. He also participated in the restoration of the building after the 1972 flood caused by the Susquehanna River.
Re’eh (רְאֵה – See) Deuteronomy 11:26–16:17 and Isaiah 54:11–55:5
Moses calls upon the people to see and choose: blessing or curse, depending on their faithfulness to the commandments. The text elaborates on laws regarding centralized worship, kosher dietary laws, charity (tzedakah), and pilgrimage festivals. Isaiah’s haftara speaks of the consolation of a rebuilt Jerusalem and the eternal covenant between God and His people.
Deuteronomy 11:29 וְנָתַתָּה אֶת-הַבְּרָכָה עַל-הַר גְּרִזִים You shall place the blessing upon Mount Gerizim
It was in Samaria, on the slopes of Mount Gerizim, that the Jewish community of Har Bracha (“Mountain of Blessing”) was founded in 1983. The choice of location is no coincidence: it directly corresponds to the verse in Re’eh, which designates Mount Gerizim as the site of blessing upon entering the Promised Land.
Har Bracha was established as part of the post-1977 settlement movement, during a time when Samaria was regaining Jewish presence after nearly two millennia. Initially founded as a Nahal military outpost, it was demilitarized and converted into a civilian community on Yom Ha’atzmaut 1983.
The yeshiva led by Rabbi Eliezer Melamed, author of the halakhic series Peninei Halakha, has become a center of study and spiritual influence. Each year, it attracts dozens of students, many of whom choose to settle permanently after their studies.
The main synagogue of Har Bracha, built in the 1990s, features a modest and functional style typical of mountain settlements: local stone, a low dome, and stained glass inspired by biblical blessings.
Today, Har Brakha has over 3,000 residents, spread across several neighborhoods. The population is mostly composed of young religious families, with high birth rates and a vibrant communal life. The town includes schools, kindergartens, shops, and a Judaic library.
Parashat Matot–Masei and Rosh Chodesh Av Numbers 30:2–36:13 (Matot–Masei), Numbers 28:9–15 (Rosh Chodesh), Isaiah 66:1–24 (Rosh Chodesh)
The double portion Matot–Masei concludes the Book of Numbers. It addresses the laws of vows and recounts the war against Midian. It also describes the settlement of the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and half of Manasseh east of the Jordan. Then follow the listing of the 42 desert journeys, the rules for dividing the Land, the establishment of the cities of refuge, and the question of the inheritance of the daughters of Zelophehad.
In the haftarah, the prophet Isaiah portrays a messianic Jerusalem—a source of peace and a center of universal worship.
Numbers 33:33 וַיִּסְעוּ, מֵחֹר הַגִּדְגָּד; וַיַּחֲנוּ, בְּיָטְבָתָה They journeyed from Hor‑Hagidgad and camped at Yotvata.
This verse names Yotvata[2] among the 42 stations of Israel’s desert wanderings. When history takes root, the desert becomes fertile. Kibbutz Yotvata was founded in 1957 by the Naḥal movement[3], near Ein Radian—a major natural spring in the Arava Valley, 42 km north of Eilat—adjacent to the ruins of a Roman fort. From its inception, Yotvata established the regional school Ma’aleh Shaharut[4], which blends academic studies, environmental awareness, and civic engagement. The kibbutz also hosts a boarding program of Na’alé[5]. In the 1960s, an agricultural center combined geological and agronomic research, irrigation innovations, and greenhouse cultivation. Solar panels now supply much of the kibbutz’s electricity, and wastewater is recycled for irrigation. The Yotvata dairy[6], founded in 1962, processes local milk into over forty products distributed throughout Israel. Adjacent to the kibbutz, the Hai‑Bar reserve works to reintroduce biblical species to the Negev—onager, oryx, gazelle, and hyena.
[1]Inyan ha‑yom – The subject of the day primes. When a special haftarah is prescribed (e.g., Rosh Chodesh, Hanukkah), it takes precedence over the regular weekly haftarah (Orach Ḥayim 425:1; Mishnah Berurah 425:7). [2] Deuteronomy 10:7 calls Yotvata “a land of flowing streams.” Some commentaries link its name to the Hebrew root T‑V‑B (tov, “good”). [3] Naḥal (Noʿar Ḥalutzi Loḥem) – “Fighting Pioneer Youth,” an IDF framework founded in 1948 to combine military service with founding agricultural settlements. [4] Ma’aleh Shaharut School serves about 600 students from the eleven communities of the Hevel Eilot Regional Council, including Yotvata. Under Israel’s Ministry of Education, it offers pluralistic academic, environmental, and civic education. [5]Na’alé (Noʿar Oleh Lifnei Horim) – a government program launched in 1992 bringing Jewish teens worldwide to finish high school in Israel before their families make aliyah. [6]The Yotvata dairy, operated since 2000 in partnership with Strauss Group, is renowned for its chocolate milk and dairy drinks.
Pin’has (פִּינְחָס) Numbers 25:10–30:1 and Jeremiah 1:1–2:3 [1]
Pinchas receives a covenant of peace and the priesthood. Moses and Eleazar conduct a new census of the tribes. The daughters of Zelophehad are granted the right to inherit their father’s estate. Joshua is appointed as Moses’ successor. A description of the ritual sacrifices is given. The prophet Jeremiah evokes the bond between God and Israel, born in the wilderness.
Jeremiah 2:2 זָכַרְתִּי לָךְ חֶסֶד נְעוּרַיִךְ, אַהֲבַת כְּלוּלֹתָיִךְ, לֶכְתֵךְ אַחֲרַי בַּמִּדְבָּר I remember the kindness of your youth, the love of your betrothal, when you followed Me in the desert.
Near Gondar, on the road to the Simien Mountains, a handmade sign reads “Jewish village of Wolleka Falasha”. This village was home to an Ethiopian Jewish community—Beta Israel—whose religious tradition developed independently from rabbinic Judaism, without access to the Talmud or mainstream institutions. Their biblical and priestly customs, rooted in the desert, likely predate the Babylonian exile, making their history uniquely significant in the Jewish narrative. Their spiritual life revolved around the qessotch[2], priests who led rituals and were responsible for reading the Orit[3], the sacred scriptures sung in Ge’ez[4] and transmitted orally across generations. In 1973, after an investigation by Israel’s Chief Rabbinate, Rabbi Ovadia Yosef officially recognized them as “descendants of the tribe of Dan”. In 1975, following this halachic recognition, the Israeli government extended immigration rights to Beta Israel under the Law of Return. Many Ethiopian Jews joined Israel through large-scale aliyot. Some crossed Sudan on foot at great personal risk, later being evacuated by air [5], while others were flown out directly from Addis Ababa [6]. Today, no Jewish residents remain in Wolleka, but the village bears testimony to its past: a clay synagogue built in 1942 with traditional artwork, a cemetery with blue-painted tombs, and a memorial honoring Beta Israel members who perished en route to Sudan. A local family holds the synagogue keys and charges a small fee for upkeep and visits. By preserving the site, the villagers reinforce its identity as a place of remembrance, rather than just a tourist destination.
[1]Normally, the haftara for Parashat Pin’has comes from 1 Kings 18:46–19:21. However, when read after the fast of 17 Tammuz, it is replaced with the haftara of Mattot: Jeremiah 1:1–2:3. [2]Qessotch are Ethiopian Jewish priests, distinct from rabbis, who maintain ritual purity and lead religious practices in the Beta Israel tradition. [3]Orit is the Beta Israel’s version of the Torah, encompassing the Pentateuch, Prophets (Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings), Writings (Psalms, Proverbs, Ruth, etc.), and some apocryphal texts like the Book of Enoch and Book of Jubilees. [4]Ge’ez is an ancient Semitic liturgical language used by Ethiopian Jews, once the official language of the Aksumite kingdom and the Ethiopian Empire. [5]Operation Moses (1984) was a covert evacuation of Ethiopian Jewish refugees from Sudan to Israel. [6] Operation Solomon (1991) was a massive airlift, bringing over 14,000 Ethiopian Jews from Addis Ababa to Israel in less than 36 hours.
